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Origins
Although there are no historical records that deal directly with the founding of Venice,[10] tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities near Venice such as Padua, Aquileia, Treviso, Altino and Concordia (modern Portogruaro) and from the undefended countryside, who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions.[11] Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers"). The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo at the islet of Rialto (Rivoalto, "High Shore"), which is said to have been at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421.[12][13]
The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula was that of the Lombards in 568, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire a small strip of coast in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna, administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy (the Exarch) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople, but Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes and with the Venetians' isolated position came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, dated from c. 568.[14]
The traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, Paul's magister militum (General; literally, "Master of Soldiers.") In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II. The Exarch was murdered and many officials put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own leader for the first time, although the relationship of this ascent to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus would become the first of 117 "doges" (doge is the Venetian dialect development of the Latin dux ("leader"); the corresponding word in English is duke, in standard Italian duce.) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions" and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo as dux[15] and given the added title of hypatus (Greek for "Consul".)[16]
In 751, the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna, leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke/dux", later "doge"), was situated in Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased in correspondence with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories as refugees sought asylum in the lagoon city. In 775/776, the episcopal seat of Olivolo (Helipolis) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811–827), the ducal seat was moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto, the current location of Venice. The monastery of St. Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark, as well as a walled defense (civitatis murus) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here. Winged lions, which may be seen throughout Venice, are a symbol for St. Mark.
Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his own rule. He ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast,[17] and Charlemagne's own son Pepin of Italy, king of the Lombards under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.
In 828, the new city's prestige was raised by the acquisition of the claimed relics of St. Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria, which were placed in the new basilica. The patriarchal seat was also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned, it led to the growth of autonomy and eventual independence.[18]
Expansion
Piazza San Marco in Venice, with St Mark's Campanile and Basilica in the background
These Horses of Saint Mark are a replica of the Triumphal Quadriga captured in Constantinople in 1204 and carried to Venice as a trophy.
From the 9th to the 12th century, Venice developed into a city state (an Italian thalassocracy or Repubblica Marinara, the other three being Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi). Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast, the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world (especially the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world).
The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River, were known as the "Terraferma", and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat, on which the city depended. In building its maritime commercial empire, the Republic dominated the trade in salt,[19] acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean, including Cyprus and Crete, and became a major power-broker in the Near East. By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo, Brescia and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.
Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-called Golden Bulls or 'chrysobulls' in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the Empire but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice's power.[20][21]
Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade, which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire. As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople, which were originally placed above the entrance to St Mark's cathedral in Venice, although the originals have been replaced with replicas and are now stored within the basilica. Following the fall of Constantinople, the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago, and captured Crete.[22]
The seizure of Constantinople would ultimately prove as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes after Manzikert. Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453.
View of San Giorgio Maggiore Island from St. Mark's Campanile
Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. During this time, Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by the Great Council, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected "Doge", or duke, the ceremonial head of the city, who normally held the title until his death.
The Venetian governmental structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the Doge), a senate-like assembly of nobles, and a mass of citizens with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected Doge. Church and various private properties were tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means (hence, the city's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce).
Francesco Guardi, The Grand Canal, 1760 (Art Institute of Chicago)
The chief executive was the Doge, who theoretically held his elective office for life. In practice, several Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign the office and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by perceived political failure.
Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and it enacted not a single execution for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice's frequent conflicts with the Papacy. In this context, the writings of the Anglican Divine, William Bedell, are particularly illuminating. Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most famous, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V.
Venetian ambassadors sent home still-extant secret reports of the politics and rumours of European courts, providing fascinating information to modern historians.
The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world, and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius, who invented the concept of paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag. His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era.[23]
Decline
The Grand Canal in Venice
Venice's long decline started in the 15th century, when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans (1423–1430). It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks (1453). After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II he declared war on Venice. The war lasted thirty years and cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Next, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World. Then Portugal found a sea route to India, destroying Venice's land route monopoly. France, England and the Dutch Republic followed them. Venice's oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans, and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies.
The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and once again between 1575 and 1577.[24] In three years the plague killed some 50,000 people.[25] In 1630, the plague killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens.[26] Venice began to lose its position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth, while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars, marginalising its political influence. However, the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products and, until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing center.
Modern age[edit source | editbeta]
A map of the sestiere of San Marco
The Republic lost independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the First Coalition. The French conqueror brought to an end the most fascinating century of its history: during the 18th century, Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe, greatly influencing art, architecture and literature. Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city's Jewish population, although it can be argued they had lived with fewer restrictions in Venice. He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city.
Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. It was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, but was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. In 1848–1849, a revolt briefly reestablished the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin. In 1866, following the Third Italian War of Independence, Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.
During the Second World War, the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler, a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations there in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage done the city itself.[27] However the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste and Trento were repeatedly bombed.[28] On 29 April 1945, New Zealand troops under Freyberg reached Venice and relieved the city and the mainland, which were already in partisan hands.[29]
Subsidence[edit source | editbeta]
Further information: Acqua alta
Acqua alta or high water in Venice.
Venice and surroundings in false colour, from Terra. The picture is oriented with North at the top.
Foundations
The buildings of Venice are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles. Most of these piles are still intact after centuries of submersion. The foundations rest on the piles, and buildings of brick or stone sit above these footings. The piles penetrate a softer layer of sand and mud until they reach a much harder layer of compressed clay.
Submerged by water, in oxygen-poor conditions, wood does not decay as rapidly as on the surface.
Most of these piles were made from trunks of alder trees,[30] a wood noted for its water resistance.[31] The alder came from the westernmost part of today's Slovenia (resulting in the barren land of the Kras region), in two regions of Croatia, Lika and Gorski kotar (resulting in the barren slopes of Velebit) and south of Montenegro.[citation needed] Leonid Grigoriev has stated that Russian larch was imported to build some of Venice's foundations.[32] Larch is also used in the production of Venice turpentine.[33]
History[edit source | editbeta]
The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic between autumn and early spring. Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city. This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment.
In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a 'stamp tax'. When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper with the superscription 'AQ' and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for 'letters to officials'. At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries.
During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside. It was realised that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods (called Acqua alta, "high water") that creep to a height of several centimetres over its quays, regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, the former staircases used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable.
Some recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking,[34][35] but this is not yet certain; therefore, a state of alert has not been revoked. In May 2003, the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates; the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres, the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work is due to be completed by 2014.[36]
Geography
Sestieri of Venice:
Cannaregio
Castello
Dorsoduro
San Marco
San Polo
Santa Croce
The historical city is divided into six areas or "sestiere" (while the whole comune (municipality) is divided into 6 boroughs of which one is composed of all 6 sestiere). These are Cannaregio, San Polo, Dorsoduro (including the Giudecca and Isola Sacca Fisola), Santa Croce, San Marco (including San Giorgio Maggiore) and Castello (including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena). Each sestiere was administered by a procurator and his staff. Nowadays each sestiere is a statistic and historical area without any degree of autonomy.
These districts consist of parishes – initially seventy in 1033, but reduced under Napoleon and now numbering just thirty-eight. These parishes predate the sestieri, which were created in about 1170.
Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri, having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy.
Each sestiere has its own house numbering system. Each house has a unique number in the district, from one to several thousand, generally numbered from one corner of the area to another, but not usually in a readily understandable manner.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Venice has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa), with cool winters and very warm summers. The 24-hour average in January is 2.5 °C (36.5 °F), and for July this figure is 22.7 °C (72.9 °F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 801 millimetres (31.5 in).
FRANCAIS
"L’artiste Delit Maille voulait montrer la démesure de la Première Guerre mondiale. L’installation Wool War One est beaucoup plus que ça. C’est l’histoire intime de 500 tricoteuses du monde entier rassemblée autour d’un projet effectivement démesuré : créer une armée de 780 petits soldats en marche. Un émouvant hommage aux combattants de la Grande Guerre à contempler au premier étage du musée La Piscine.
...
Au premier étage, dans une cabine du musée La Piscine vers laquelle l’armée en laine marche, un petit soldat regarde un mur. C’est le seul poilu à qui les tricoteuses ont donné des yeux. Le bonhomme lit une citation du grand écrivain britannique Rudyard Kipling : « Si quelqu’un veut savoir pourquoi nous sommes morts. Dites-leur : parce que nos pères ont menti. »
Cette phrase est née d’une tragédie. Propagandiste de la Première Guerre mondiale, l’écrivain est intervenu pour faire entrer son fils unique dans l’armée alors qu’il était réformé à cause de sa myopie. John Kipling est tué au combat, en 1915 lors de la bataille de Loos."
www.lavoixdunord.fr/region/roubaix-wool-war-one-a-la-pisc...
KNITTERS who found a novel way to commemorate the First World War - by creating an army of more than 750 mini wool soldiers – will see the fruits of their efforts go on display this week.
ENGLISH
The 15cm tall figures, known as Wool War One, go on show in La Piscine museum in Roubaix, Nord Pas de Calais this Saturday until April 12, 2015 as part of an exhibition dedicated to the First World War.
www.connexionfrance.com/Knitted-soldiers-Wool-War-One-Rou...
keirybeesparis.wordpress.com/tag/wool-war-one/
Musée Roubaix La Piscine
:copyright: All rights reserved by CGilles7.
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission.
Francais\French
VL2011-0117
3 juillet 2011
Québec, Qc
Départ des membres de la musique et des soldats du Deuxième Royal 22e Régiment (2 R22R) accompagnés de leur mascotte, la chèvre Batisse.
Le maire de la ville de Québec, M Régis Labeaume, est l'hôte du droit de cité, cette parade annuelle ou participent les membres du Deuxième Royal 22e Régiment (2 R22R) Leurs Altesse Royales, les Duc et Duchesse de Cambridge, William et Kate ont été les invités d'honneurs lors de la cérémonie. Le premier ministre du Québec, M Jean Charest a également été un invité d'honneur.
Les membres des Forces Armées, de l'Aviation et de la Marine Canadienne, de la force régulière et de la réserve sont honorés de supporter le Duc et la Duchesse de Cambridge pendant leur tournée canadienne, du 30 juin au 8 juillet 2011. Les FC apportent leur support logistique et cérémonial alors que le Duc et la Duchesse visiteront Ottawa, Montréal, Québec, l'Île du Prince Edward, Yellowknife et Calgary. Les honneurs militaires, Parade du droit de cité, gun salute de 21 coups, une croisière sur le St-Laurent à bord du NCSM Montréal, vols à bord d'aéronefs canadien et une rencontre spéciale avec les Rangers juniors sont au menu des célébrations.
Photo par Sgt Ronald Duchesne
Section imagerie, Garnison Valcartier
Copyright @ 2011 DND - MDN Canada
Voici une femelle bouledogue francais , arrivée hier a la maison , c'est un amour de chien ...
Here a female french bulldog , arrived yesterday at home , this is a love dog !
Parle le Francais?
Un petit peur!
Font vous aiment mes jambes ?
[Do you like my legs?]
Please say yes!
This pic was taken by Cindy after we left the DC Trans Girls Soirée and went to the lounge at the Fair Lakes Hyatt for a little impromptu photo session.
I surreptitiously removed my leggings so that I could get a few pix revealing my fishnet hose-clad legs!
For the evening, I created an ensemble around this eye-catching shiny wet look black and silver hologram zig-zag patterned tank style minidress from coquetryclothing.com worn over my Baltogs shiny black wet look leotard from nydancewear.com, a double buckle stretch belt from greatglam.com, my burn out mesh leggings from fredericks.com (removed for this pic) and matched up with fishnet hose from electriqueboutique.com worn over super shiny black Platino Luxe 40 denier pantyhose from shapings.com and my standard base layer Hanes Alive Barely There pantyhose from onehanesplace.com and finished off by my black patent peep toe platform pumps from venus.com.
To see more pix of me in other tight, sexy and revealing outfits click this link:www.flickr.com/photos/kaceycdpix/sets/72157623668202157/
To see more pix of me in clothes from Coquetry Clothing click this link: www.flickr.com/photos/kaceycdpix/sets/72157626739774869/
DSC_1121-2
Docteur La Peluche EN FRANCAIS COMPLET Episode 1 HD: t.co/7ynuJibter via @YouTube t.co/ihSP4geWUa April 07, 2015 at 03:59… (via Twitter twitter.com/annaa3205/status/666658556645646337) annaa3205
Docteur La Peluche EN FRANCAIS COMPLET Episode 1 HD: t.co/7ynuJibter via @YouTube t.co/ihSP4geWUa April 07, 2015 at 03:59…
— angela (@annaa3205) November 17, 2015
twitter.com/annaa3205/status/666658556645646337 November 17, 2015 at 04:46PM
Image taken from:
Title: "Canada. Le guide du colon francais, belge, suisse, etc. Avec illustrations, etc"
Author: DRAPEAU, Stanislas.
Shelfmark: "British Library HMNTS 10470.dd.17."
Page: 50
Place of Publishing: Ottawa
Date of Publishing: 1887
Issuance: monographic
Identifier: 000980038
Explore:
Find this item in the British Library catalogue, 'Explore'.
Download the PDF for this book (volume: 0) Image found on book scan 50 (NB not necessarily a page number)
Download the OCR-derived text for this volume: (plain text) or (json)
Click here to see all the illustrations in this book and click here to browse other illustrations published in books in the same year.
Vases – Home Decor :
Le Verre Francais Cameo Glass Palmier Bleus Vase, Designed by Charles Schneider, France, c. 1924-25
-Read More –
decorobject.com/decorative-objects/vases/vases-home-decor...
Vases – Home Decor :
Le Verre Francais Cameo Glass Palmier Bleus Vase, Designed by Charles Schneider, France, c. 1924-25
-Read More –
decorobject.com/decorative-objects/vases/vases-home-decor...
Image taken from:
Title: "Canada. Le guide du colon francais, belge, suisse, etc. Avec illustrations, etc"
Author: DRAPEAU, Stanislas.
Shelfmark: "British Library HMNTS 10470.dd.17."
Page: 142
Place of Publishing: Ottawa
Date of Publishing: 1887
Issuance: monographic
Identifier: 000980038
Explore:
Find this item in the British Library catalogue, 'Explore'.
Download the PDF for this book (volume: 0) Image found on book scan 142 (NB not necessarily a page number)
Download the OCR-derived text for this volume: (plain text) or (json)
Click here to see all the illustrations in this book and click here to browse other illustrations published in books in the same year.
Docteur La Peluche EN FRANCAIS COMPLET Episode 1 HD: t.co/czP2WPbp2n via @YouTube t.co/QbSt4o0y0U April 07, 2015 at 03:59… (via Twitter twitter.com/annaa3205/status/656749026633760768) annaa3205
Docteur La Peluche EN FRANCAIS COMPLET Episode 1 HD: t.co/czP2WPbp2n via @YouTube t.co/QbSt4o0y0U April 07, 2015 at 03:59…
— angela (@annaa3205) October 21, 2015
twitter.com/annaa3205/status/656749026633760768 October 21, 2015 at 09:29AM